DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.75.e164168

Authors: Marcel Hugo Decker, Peter H. W. Biedermann

Abstract: Der Eichenkernkäfer, Platypus cylindrus (Fabricius, 1792), ist eng an die Gattung Eiche (Quercus spp.) gebunden, deren Arten ökologisch, kulturell und wirtschaftlich von großer Bedeutung sind. Er ist ein tief in das Xylem eindringender Ambrosiakäfer, der sich primär von seinen mutualistischen Nahrungspilzen ernährt. Nach Jahrzehnten, in denen der Eichenkernkäfer in Deutschland kaum beachtet wurde, wird sein Vorkommen seit einigen Jahren wieder vermehrt beobachtet, vor allem an frisch gefällten oder lagernden Eichenstämmen während seiner Flugzeit von Mitte Juni bis September. Dies kann zu einer erheblichen technischen Entwertung des betroffenen Eichenholzes führen. Durch den Klimawandel, insbesondere infolge der zunehmenden Schwächung von Eichenbeständen durch Hitze- und Trockenstress sowie andere Schadinsekten gewinnt er wieder an forstwirtschaftlicher Bedeutung. Deshalb fasst dieses Review den aktuellen Kenntnisstand zur Taxonomie, Biologie, Lebensweise, Symbiose und forstlichen Bedeutung von P. cylindrus zusammen, beleuchtet historische Gradationen und analysiert, wie Klimawandel und weitere Schadinsekten dessen Rolle als potenzieller Schadorganismus verstärken. Basierend auf einer umfassenden Literaturrecherche und der Analyse historischer Quellen wurde der Kenntnisstand systematisch aufbereitet. Ergänzend wurden eigene hochauflösende Bildaufnahmen zur detaillierten morphologischen Darstellung von P. cylindrus erstellt sowie die Geschichte und Lebensweise der Ambrosiakäfer aufgearbeitet. Neben der Biologie und Symbiose wurden historische Gradationen dokumentiert, die bereits im 20. Jahrhundert zu massiven technischen Entwertungen von Eichenstämmen führten. Solche Schäden stellen bis heute eine große Herausforderung für Forstwirtschaft und Sägewerksindustrie dar, da befallenes Holz seine Nutzbarkeit verliert. Der Klimawandel verändert Flugzeiten und schwächt Wirtsbäume, wodurch P. cylindrus verstärkt Chancen zur Besiedlung vorgeschädigter oder absterbender Eichen erhält. Platypus cylindrus kann mehrere Laubbaumarten besiedeln, auch wenn er eine klare Präferenz für die Gattung Quercus hat. P. cylindrus stellt aufgrund seiner engen Pilzsymbiosen und seines sich möglicherweise erweiternden Wirtsspektrums ein wertvolles Modellsystem für Insekt-Pilz-Wechselwirkungen dar, gleichzeitig aber auch ein potenzielles Risiko für die Forstwirtschaft. Eine integrierte Betrachtung seiner Biologie, seiner Rolle als Indikator für klimabedingte Stressphasen in Wäldern sowie seiner wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung ist erforderlich, um fundierte Strategien zum Schutz und Erhalt von Eichenwäldern zu entwickeln.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.75.e155016

Authors: Maria Fungomeli, Martin Wiemers, Lucia Calderini, Alessandro Chiarucci

Abstract: Community structures, including butterfly diversity, are shaped by both biotic and abiotic factors, with forest type exerting a significant influence. The Arabuko Sokoke Forest (ASF), the largest remaining coastal forest fragment in Kenya and East Africa, is rich in biodiversity and endemic species. Given its varied forest types, ASF provides a unique opportunity to examine how these differences affect butterfly community structure. This study aims to investigate how vegetation diversity and structure influence butterfly community structures and species richness within ASF. We conducted butterfly and woody plant surveys during the dry season across four distinct forest types in ASF: Cynometra forest, Brachystegia woodland, mixed forest and the forest edge. Butterfly populations were sampled using transects measuring 10 m × 100 m and woody plant species were surveyed along overlapping transects. A total of 6,050 butterfly individuals were recorded, representing 86 species across 38 genera and five families. The woody vegetation comprised 178 species, belonging to 78 genera and 34 families. Significant differences in butterfly species abundance were observed across the forest types, though no significant differences were found in species richness. Beta diversity analyses revealed consistently high community dissimilarity across all forest types, driven predominantly by balanced variation in species abundances rather than nestedness. Brachystegia forest exhibited the highest total beta diversity, while forest edge exhibited the lowest. This indicates that species turnover, rather than richness differences, is the primary mechanism structuring butterfly communities at the landscape scale in Arabuko Sokoke Forest. Butterfly species diversity showed a strong correlation with plant species diversity. Additionally, butterfly wingspan size varied significantly amongst forest types. Our findings underscore the crucial role of natural plant forest diversity in supporting butterfly diversity and highlight the synergistic functions of the mixed forest and Brachystegia forest as key habitats. There is need for conservation strategies that account for multiple dimensions of biodiversity. While mixed forest serves as a reservoir of high species richness and abundance, Brachystegia forest offers critical value through their contribution to beta diversity at the landscape level. These results highlight the fundamental importance of conservation efforts directed to protect high plant diversity and structural heterogeneity to provide a broad spectrum of ecological niches and habitat connectivity for butterflies. Such strategies will enhance butterfly diversity and contribute to effective conservation in fragmented forests and especially in Arabuko Sokoke Forest.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.75.e144856

Authors: D. Christian Furness, Elaine Tan, John T. Longino

Abstract: Temperate zone ants overwinter using a variety of mechanisms. The genus Formica overwinters entirely as adults. In at least one species it has been demonstrated that winter workers are more corpulent than summer foragers, storing resources in their bodies and mobilizing them for early brood production in spring. Here we examine overwintering by the common western thatch ant, F. obscuripes. Excavation of a winter nest revealed only workers, distributed in multiple chambers in a roughly spherical region from 0.5 to 1.05 m deep. Worker size, as measured by head width, was weakly bimodal, with fewer workers in the small vs. large size class. We measured dry weights of workers from the winter nest and workers collected the previous summer from the surfaces of multiple nests in the vicinity, including our excavated nest. Controlling for size, there was no evidence of bimodality in winter worker weight, and winter workers were 59.7% heavier than summer foragers. These results suggest that F. obscuripes workers are at their maximum corpulence going into their first winter, expend their stored fat during spring, and mostly die before overwintering a second time. It remains uncertain whether workers can regain corpulence.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.75.e139899

Authors: Vareesh Baghela, Kiran Meena, Muskan Kachhwaha, Rajbala Verma, Neetu Kachhwaha

Abstract: Nanoparticles synthesized by chemical and physical methods use toxic reducing agents and expensive equipment. This study’s objective is to create silver nanoparticles through an economical and environmentally-friendly green synthesis method, employing Trachyspermum ammi leaf extract as a capping and reducing agent. The green synthesized silver nanoparticles (TA-AgNPs) were characterized by UV/Visible spectrum (absorbance peak-419 nm), Scanning electron microscopy (15–45 nm), Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (peak at 3 keV), X-ray diffraction (crystalline nature), and FTIR (strong peak at 3122.96 cm-1). Further, the potential of the synthesized silver nanoparticles was subjected against third and fourth larval instar and adult stages of Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes. The entomological assays were conducted by following WHO guidelines (2005, 2022) at the dose concentrations of 0.5 ppm, 5 ppm, 15 ppm, 25 ppm, 35 ppm, 45 ppm (larvicidal), and 5 ppm, 20 ppm, 35 ppm, 55 ppm, 75 ppm, 95 ppm concentrations (adulticidal) of crude extract and TA-AgNPs. After 24 hours of exposure, the TA-AgNPs treated a group of An. stephensi larvae and adults showed 100% death at their highest dosage. TA-AgNPs demonstrated considerable and superior larvicidal and adulticidal action compared to crude extract. A one-way ANOVA with a p < 0.05 yielded highly significant findings across all genera. The values at the data’s LC50, LC90, and LC95 endpoints were estimated using the probit plane regression analysis. Compared to Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, the An. stephensi had the highest acute toxicity. TA-AgNPs offered a potent insecticide for limiting epidemics of mosquito-borne diseases.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.75.e138001

Authors: Andreas Krüger, Anke Crecelius, Denise Fischer, Ralf M. Hagen

Abstract: In the three consecutive years of 2022–2024, three female specimens of the phlebotomine sandfly Phlebotomus mascittii were trapped in two locations in the vicinity of Coblenz, western Germany. These records slightly expand the distribution limits of the species in the Federal State of Rhineland-Palatinate to the north, at latitudes 50°18'N and 50°15'N, respectively, and represent the second northernmost Palearctic sandfly locations so far.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.74.e136784

Authors: Elias Freyhof, Emil Janke

Abstract: Heated greenhouses are a hotspot for introduced species from warmer climates. We studied 24 greenhouses for their invertebrate fauna with a special focus on ants. Identifications were initialised by iNaturalist and its community, followed by literature, COI barcoding and consulting experts in some cases. We report 32 introduced species including eight new records at the regional, national or continental scale, four of which are ants. Technomyrmex difficilis and Solenopsis texana are recorded for the first time in Germany. Plagiolepis alluaudi and Technomyrmex vitiensis are new for Berlin and Brandenburg. Alepia cf. viatrix (Diptera, Psychodidae) is first recorded for continental Eurasia. Cryptotermes cavifrons (Blattodea, Kalotermitidae) and Geonemertes pelaensis (Hoplonemertea, Prosorhochmidae) are recorded the first time for Europe. An unidentified species of the genus Anisorhynchodemus (Tricladida, Geoplanidae) is recorded the first time for Germany. Here, we present records for 37 species (five of the ant species are native), all associated with pictures in iNaturalist. For 33 individuals of 20 species, we also provide COI sequence data supporting their identification. Furthermore, the comparison of greenhouse metadata with species composition showed that the introduced ant species are dependent on a high minimum temperature in the greenhouse.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.74.e123244

Authors: Joan A. van der Velden

Abstract: In a rural garden in the southwest of the Netherlands, 48 species of hoverfly were observed, belonging to 28 genera. All but one species are common in the Netherlands. Gardens are a natural habitat for many hoverflies. Both species diversity and the abundance of hoverflies can be high, making hoverflies good indicators for an ecological garden health index for insects. The potential contribution of citizen science to gain more ecological knowledge of hoverflies in gardens is discussed. This study shows that photographic capture and biometrical identification are suitable for citizen science projects on hoverflies.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.74.e125001

Authors: Max Kasparek, Noudjoud Benarfa, Ahlam Sentil

Abstract: Bees inhabiting xeric environments often exhibit, like many other insects, brown, beige, and sandy colours, aligning with the hues of the desert landscape. In this study, we study two bee species belonging to the tribe Anthidiini that defy this general colour pattern. These species feature an almost entirely black integument, contrasting with the typical rich yellow or beige colour pattern found in most members of the genus Anthidium Fabricius, 1804. The new species, A. nigrum Kasparek, sp. nov., was found in the deserts of the northern Sahara, where also another dark congener lives, the little-known Anthidium pullatum Morice, 1916, which is re-described here based on the rediscovery of the type material which has been thought lost. We hypothesise that this colouration phenomenon may be explained by an adaptation to the strong day-and-night temperature differences in the desert environment. The black colouration enables bees to harness solar energy early in the day, capitalizing on enhanced heat retention due to the lower reflectance of their integument. It is hypothesized that this allows bees to optimize their activity pattern during the brief period before temperatures rise to levels posing a high risk of overheating.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.74.e120116

Authors: Arnold Richert

Abstract: Die Entwicklung der Großschmetterlingsfauna der Diluviallandschaften um Eberswalde wird bis zum Jahre 2023 fortgeschrieben: Veränderungen im Artenbestand: Vierzehn Arten wurden im Beobachtungszeitraum erstmals im Gebiet nachgewiesen: Pieris mannii (Pieridae), Korscheltellus lupulina (Hepialidae), Synanthedon mesiaeformis (zugleich Erstfund in Deutschland und im Land Brandenburg), Pyropteron triannuliformis (Sesiidae), Lasiocampa quercus (Lasiocampidae), Eilema caniola, Eublemma purpurina (Erebidae), Amphipyra perflua, Caradrina kadenii, Dicycla oo, Mythimna vitellina (Noctuidae), Isturgia arenacearia, Idaea rusticata, Horisme radicaria (Geometridae). Für weitere vier Arten liegen inzwischen sichere Erstnachweise aus früherer Zeit vor: Pyronia tithonus (Nymphalidae, Satyrinae; historischer Fund), Morpho helenor peleides (Nymphalidae; Verschleppung), Euplagia quadripunctaria (Erebidae), Spodoptera exigua (Noctuidae; Verschleppung). Zehn im Gebiet verschollene Arten wurden wiederentdeckt, darunter als besonders bemerkenswerte Wiederfunde der Augenfalter Lasiommata maera nach 66 Jahren und die Eulenfalter Schrankia taenialis nach 36 Jahren, Hyppa rectilinea nach 33 Jahren, Apamea furva nach 23 Jahren, Hadena perplexa nach 27 Jahren. Neun Arten des bisherigen Bestandes werden als verschollen gemeldet. Die Kenntnisse zur Biologie der Arten, ihrer Verbreitung im Gebiet sowie zu aktuellen Veränderungen der Phänologie werden ergänzt.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.74.e117994

Authors: Tom Jamonneau

Abstract: This note is grounded in the examination of Afrotropical butterflies belonging to the entomological collections at CBGP, Montpellier, France. In the course of historical specimen referencing, the species Stempfferia insulana (Aurivillius, 1923; Lycaenidae) was recorded from Gabon. This is the first report of this species for this country, and the most western data for this Central-Western African species.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.74.e119311

Authors: Holger Dathe

Abstract: na

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e110329

Authors: Alain Dohet, Sarah Vray, Lionel L’Hoste

Abstract: In Luxembourg, caddisflies have been systematically collected since the early Sixties. Three periods of exhaustive sampling may be distinguished: the Sixties; 1994 to 2002; and a long period from 2007 to the present time in the frame of the Water Framework Directive. Bearing in mind the uneven sampling procedure across periods, we aim to document changes in community composition and distribution through time including the nature of these changes (e.g. gains and losses of species). We hypothesise different trends of species gains and losses for specialist species in comparison to generalist species. Therefore, we propose a method to identify specialist and generalist species in our dataset. Historical data (1961 to 1968) lack information on precise locations and abundance of specimen collected. Consequently, cell grids of original distribution maps are used to compare caddisfly community assemblages along the three monitoring periods. We assess the changes that occur on presence/absence data in specific groups of species (i.e. cold-adapted, warm-adapted specialists and generalist species). Temporal β-diversity results reveal that survey intervals for each monitoring period are dominated by species losses when the comparison is restricted to cold-adapted species. On the other hand, warm-adapted and generalist species are increasing from the Sixties period when compared to the two next periods (1994–2002 and 2007–2020). However, the comparison of the most recent periods reveals species losses even for the warm-adapted and generalist species. This complex picture of caddisflies species losses and gains in different ways through time, amongst river types and in response to different pressures, is discussed.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e109206

Authors: Ariane Vieira, Hendrik C. Kuhlmann, Johann Waringer, Carina Zittra, Simon Vitecek, Stephan Handschuh

Abstract: Body morphologies are significantly different amongst the members of the Drusinae subfamily. Aligned with such differences is the selective niche location chosen by many species from the subfamily. Typically, they live on the sediments of cold, well-oxygenated mountain streams from the Eurasian Region. However, each of the three evolutionary lineages (shredders, grazers and carnivorous filter feeders) inhabit different hydraulic locations according to their foraging behaviour. To investigate the relationship between the body morphology and the flow field near the body, we use Large Eddy Simulations to compute the flow past five different species of the subfamily. We selected species representing the three evolutionary lineages of the subfamily, Drusus alpinus Meyer-Dür 1875 from the shredders clade, D. bosnicus Klapálek 1899 and D. monticola McLachlan 1876 from the grazers clade and Cryptothrix nebulicola McLachlan 1867 and D. discolor (Rambur 1842) from the filter feeders clade. For the simulations, three-dimensional body shapes were reconstructed from X-ray micro CT data and exposed to a turbulent flow corresponding to water-depth and velocity data measured in the field. The total forces acting on each morphotype were found to be comparable. The lift coefficients computed and ranging from 0.07 to 0.17 are smaller than the drag coefficients which were found to range from 0.32 to 0.55. The local distribution of the skin-friction indicates flow-separation zones near the edges of the bodies, in particular, between the head and the pronotum, which are differently located according to each species. Moreover, we observe higher streamwise normal stresses upstream of the head of the filter feeder species. It is hypothesised that the upstream horseshoe vortex can lift up drifting food particles and transport these to the larvae’s filtering legs, thereby enhancing the encounter rates of particles with the filtering devices.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e109944

Authors: Goro Kimura, Yoshitsugu Isumi, Hideo Shirai

Abstract: The Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin targets lepidopteran, dipteran and coleopteran pests. Despite their close taxonomic relationship to Lepidoptera, few studies have examined the hazard of Bt toxins on Trichoptera. We performed laboratory exposure tests to examine the effects of Bt var. aizawai on filter-feeding caddisflies, particularly Stenopsyche marmorata. In the continuous exposure test, the mortalities ranged from 0% at 1 mg/l to 100% at 20 mg/l 24 hours after exposure to Bta. The mortality at each concentration increased from 24 to 48 hours. In limited contact, mortality increased with contact time. Acclimatisation and water quality also affected larval mortality. Our results suggest that higher concentration and longer exposure to Bta affect or affect the increase of larval mortality.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e110394

Authors: Megan J. Bishoff, Lang Peng, Hao-ming Zang, John C. Morse

Abstract: Phragmosis, or the use of specially modified body parts and associated behaviors to block an opening as defense against predators, is a commonly observed phenomenon in certain ants and termites that block entrances of their subterranean nests with large, flat heads. It has been reported in some beetles and other insects and even in some frogs. Common features of phragmosis in caddisfly larvae include a hard and usually flat body surface, with or without stout spines, and the behavior of fitting that body surface tightly in the opening of its case. A different defensive strategy occurs in snails and case-making larvae of camptosomate leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae: Cryptocephalinae and Lamprosomatinae) that protect themselves from predators by securing the openings of their shells or cases firmly against the substrate, a behavior we call “cathaptosis.” Common features of cathaptosis in caddisfly larvae include a case with its vulnerable opening oriented parallel with the substrate and accompanied by behavior that grips the substrate, fixing the case opening firmly against it when threatened. We suggest that these defensive strategies have evolved multiple times in Trichoptera, especially in case-making larvae. We demonstrate some examples and provide tentative lists of caddisflies whose larvae may have evolved these defensive strategies.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e109951

Authors: Kelly M. Murray-Stoker, Shannon J. McCauley

Abstract: Amidst a global biodiversity crisis, collecting data at large spatial scales can illuminate patterns. Community science can be an avenue to reduce costs, broaden the scope of sampling, and, most importantly, connect with members of the public who are interested in and impacted by long-term ecological change. In 2021, we formulated a community science project – The Caddisfly Collective. Our goal was to study the regional influences on the responses of stream caddisfly (Trichoptera) communities to urbanization in the United States and Canada. Community scientists helped us achieve this goal by collecting caddisflies across a wider geographic scale than we could have reached on our own. To build The Caddisfly Collective, we recruited participants through social media and other online forums. We mailed collecting kits with a USB-powered ultraviolet LED light, a collecting container, bottles of preservative, data sheets, and collection labels to each participant; participants mailed back specimens and completed data sheets. There was a 79.7% rate of follow-through from sign-up to collection. During the project, 63 participants set up light-traps near urban and non-urban streams in seven different North American geographic regions, collecting adult caddisflies at 141 sites across the United States and Canada. Most sites were in the Midwest region, while the fewest sites were in the Far North region. Urban areas, classified by land cover data, comprised ~29% of total sites. We hope the details of our project can help other interested scientists implement similar projects in the future, especially focused on ecologically important caddisfly communities.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e109330

Authors: Vincent H. Resh

Abstract: Species-level identifications of the larval stages of caddisflies are available for only a limited number of taxa that are used currently in water-quality monitoring programs. This has been a long-lamented condition, but the proportion of species identifications available for aquatic forms that are used in these efforts has increased little over the past half-century. This is despite repeated and documented advantages that species-level identifications add to monitoring studies. Approaches to examining this question have ranged from anecdotal accounts of pollution tolerance among species within a genus to detailed analyses comparing information available through different hierarchical levels of taxonomy, from species to family. Justifications for not using species-level taxonomic resolution have ranged from financial considerations to suggestions that higher levels are equally as valid in showing trends as are species-level identifications. However, the evidence justifying the use of higher levels of taxonomy is lacking and more evidence favors the value of species-level identifications. Genetic techniques offer the promise of more larval-adult associations, more useful identification keys, and improved biological monitoring.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e109786

Authors: Ian Wallace

Abstract: Caddisflies use four basic methods to ensure that newly-hatched larvae become aquatic insects. One is to lay the eggs underwater so larvae can start a free life immediately after hatching. Another method is to lay the eggs above water and the hatched larvae fall or wriggle into the water. Caddisflies from waters that dry out in summer often have a female diapause gradually becoming sexually mature and often do not lay their clutches until late summer or autumn, when rising water levels flood the eggs. The hatched larvae develop into pupae by March-May, from which adult caddisflies hatch again emergence beginning in spring. Some caddisflies from waters that dry out lay in summer and those eggs hatch soon after laying so it is as a larva that they survive the dry period.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.73.e107479

Authors: Kokichi Aoya, Atsushi Hayakawa, Tomoya Iwata, Kazumi Tanida

Abstract: Shrinking pupal cocoons of Rhyacophila lezeyi were often found during summer in Shibukuro Stream, a highly acidic mountain stream in northern Japan (pH = 2.82 on average). We performed both field surveys and laboratory rearing experiments to clarify the mechanisms of R. lezeyi cocoon shrinkage. The R. lezeyi cocoon shrinkage proportion increased in years with high stream water temperatures and was related to water temperatures before and after pupation at the study site. Approximately 90% of the prepupae and pupae inside the shrinking cocoons died during the rearing experiment, implying that cocoon shrinkage caused by high water temperature strongly influenced R. lezeyi pupal survival. Laboratory experiments showed that R. lezeyi’s pupal cocoon membranes were semi-permeable and that the cocoon fluids were always hyperosmotic, indicating that water molecules can continuously enter the cocoon fluids from the stream water until the turgor of the cocoon wall is reached. However, the shrinking cocoons showed lower fluid volume and higher osmolarity than the normal turgescent cocoons. The reduction of osmotic gradient across the membrane during decreased stream flow due to less precipitation and/or the damage to the cocoon membrane and pupal body from high and fluctuating water temperatures and low pH are possible mechanisms for R. lezeyi pupal cocoon shrinkage.

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.72.e87231

Authors: Oliver Nolte

Abstract:

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DOI: 10.3897/contrib.entomol.72.e97274

Authors: Markus Blaschke, Angela Siemonsmeier

Abstract: With ongoing climate change, alterations in forest species communities are expected. Simultaneous investigations in different temperature ranges, as they are found in mountain ranges with their different altitudinal belts, offer the possibility to take a look at this future. In 2019, the species diversity of beetles was investigated in an altitudinal gradient in the Bavarian Forest and in the neighbouring Neuburger Forest using 144 flight interception traps distributed in eight strict forest reserves and in reference areas in surrounding managed forests. In total, 16,090 individuals were identified to the species level, resulting in 716 beetle species. Rare and exceptional findings are presented and discussed. The altitudinal difference of over 1,000 m led to a distinct variation of the species composition in the different altitudinal zones. For several species of the montane region the ongoing climate change will possibly influence their survival in this region. The differences between the species communities in strict forest reserves and managed stands, with the silvicultural methods practised in this region, were quite small.

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